Books

Allen, Glover M. Bats. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1939.

Griffin, Donald R. Listening in the Dark. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958.

Journal Articles

Bayefsky-Anand, Sarah. In press. "Effect of location and season on the arthropod prey of Nycteris grandis (Chiroptera: nycteridae)." African Zoology.

Biscardi, Stefania, et al. In press. "Data, sample size and statistics affect the recognition of species of bats by their echolocation calls." Acta Chiropterologica.

Borenstein, Johann and Iwan Ulrich. "The Guide Cane—A Computerized Travel Aid for the Active Guidance of Blind Pedestrians." Proceedings of the ISEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. (1997): 1283-1288.

Fenton, M. Brock and Gary P. Bell. "Recognizing bats by their echolocation calls." Journal of Mammalogy 62(2) (1981): 233-243.

Fenton, M. Brock. "The foraging behaviour and ecology of animal-eating bats." Canadian Journal of Zoology 68 (1990): 411-422.

Fenton, M. Brock, et al. "Signal strength, timing and self-deafening: the evolution of echolocation in bats." Paleobiology 21 (1995): 229-242.

Fenton, M. Brock, et al. "Compromises: sound frequencies used in echolocation by aerial feeding bats." Canadian Journal of Zoology 76 (1998): 1174-1182.

Fenton, M. Brock and John M. Ratcliffe. "Eavesdropping on bats." Nature 429 (2004): 612-613.

Griffin, Donald R., F. A.Webster, and Charles R. Michael. "The echolocation of flying insects by bats." Animal Behaviour 8 (1960): 141-154.

Habersetzer, Jorge. "Adaptive echolocation sounds in the bat Rhinopoma hardwickei." Journal of Comparative Physiology, A 144 (1981): 559-566.

Kalko, Elisabeth. "Echolocation signal design, foraging habits and guild structure in six Neotropical sheath-tailed bats (Emballonuridae)." (1995): 259-273, in "Ecology, evolution and behaviour of bats" (Racey, Paul. A. and Steven M. Swift, eds.). Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 67 (1995).

Kingston, Tigga and Stephen J. Rossiter. "Harmonic-hopping in Wallacea's bats." Nature 429 (2004): 654-657.

Lawrence, Beatrice D. and James A. Simmons. "Measurements of atmospheric attenuation at ultrasonic frequencies and the significance for echolocation by bats." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 71 (1982): 585-590.

Mukhida, Maya, James Orprecio, and M. Brock Fenton. "Echolocation calls of Myotis lucifigus and M. leibii (Vespertilionidae) flying inside a room and outside." Acta Chiropterologica 6(1) (2004): 91-97.

Neuweiller, Gerhard, et al. "Foraging behaviour and echolocation in the rufous horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus rouxi) of Sri Lanka." Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 20 (1987): 53-67.

Norberg, Ulla M. and Jeremy M.V. Rayner. "Echological morphology and flight in bats (Mammalia, Chiroptera): Wing adaptations, flight performance, foraging strategy, and echolocation." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B 316 (1987): 335-427.

Obrist, Martin K. "Flexible bat echolocation: the influence of individual habitat and conspecifics on sonar signal design." Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 36 (1995): 207-219.

Schitzler, Hans-Ulich and Elizabeth K.V. Kalko. "Echolocation by insect-eating bats." Bioscience 51 (2001): 557-569.

Schumm, A., D. Krull, and Gerhard Neuweiler. "Echolocation in the notch-eared bat, Myotis emarginatus." Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 28 (1991): 255-261.

Siemers, Bjoern and Hans-Ulich Schnitzler. "Echolocation signals reflect niche differentiation in five sympatric congeneric bat species." Nature 429 (2004): 657-661.

Simmons, James A. and Robert A. Stein. "Acoustic imaging in bat sonar: echolocation signals and the evolution of echolocation." Journal of Comparative Physiology, A 135 (1980): 61-84.

Ulanovsky, Nachum, et al. "Dynamics of jamming avoidance in echolocating bats." Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, B 271 (2004): 1467-1475.

Software

Avisoft-Ultrasoundgate 116 and Avisoft-RECORDER version 2.9 (14 August 2003), Avisoft Bioacoustics (used to record bat echolocation calls)

BatSoundPro 3.31b, 1996-2001, Pettersson Electronik (used to analyze the calls)
Microsoft Excel 2002, (10.2614.2625), 1985-2001, Microsoft Corporation (used to make calculations on various features of the calls)

SPSS 12.0 (for Windows, 8 September 2003), SPSS Inc. (used to conduct statistical analyses on the calls)

Web Site Articles

Kay, Leslie. The Bat 'K' SONAR Cane: K SONAR Specifications. Bay Advanced Technologies Ltd., 2004. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 22 December 2004. http://www.batforblind.co.nz/specification.htm

Personal Communications
Fenton, Brock. Interviewed by Sarah Bayefsky-Anand. New York, NY, 21 November 2004.
Kay, Leslie. Interviewed by e-mail by Sarah Bayefsky-Anand, 30 December 2004 - 2 January 2005.

Appendix 1: Notes about statistics

I used SPSS, a statistical program to obtain descriptive statistics (Table 1) for the call features I analyzed, including mean and standard deviation.

Using SPSS, I performed MANOVAs (multiple analysis of variance) to determine the level of variation in echolocation call features according to setting (Table 2). The MANOVA provided several measures of the situation, and here I have presented values for Wilk's Lambda, F statistics (with two indications of degrees of freedom - hypothesis and error) as well as the probability values for each analysis. Biologists typically take P < 0.05 as an indication of significance. My probability (P) values exceed this criterion.

When MANOVAs reveal the presence of significant variation across features and treatments, it is acceptable to proceed to a DFA (Discriminant Function Analysis) for further consideration of the data. This classification process uses the call features and situations to generate indications of which factors (in my case call features) are most associated with variation between calls produced in different settings. The procedure uses the data to assign each call to a situation (setting in terms of clutter in my study) and reports percentages of correct assignments. In cross validation each case is classified by the functions derived from all cases other than that case.

The statistical analyses allow researchers to understand the "significance" of their findings and observe how different factors can interact.