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Anastasia Human Factor III: The Impact of a Boiling Water Nuclear Reactor
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Continued...
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The 11 Water Quality Indicators
1. Ammonia-nitrogen. Ammonia-nitrogen, reported as ppm, is a dissolved and highly reduced form of nitrogen in water. High levels of ammonia can kill fish and indicate pollution. Major sources of ammonia include fertilizers, industrial waste by-products, and excretion from fish gills and urine. Ammonia and nitrite harm fish, while nitrates do not (Mengel, 1998). High levels of ammonia can decrease fish egg hatch rates and damage fish gills, livers and kidneys (Phona, 2002). Low dissolved oxygen levels can mean high ammonia levels, because the bacteria that nitrify ammonia need oxygen. 2. Biochemical oxygen demand. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen used by the organic matter in water. With rapid use, BOD rises and less oxygen is available. If BOD is too high, organisms suffocate. There are many sources of BOD, including plants, animals and animal waste, and microorganisms (Background on Chemical Parameters, 2004). 3. Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide results from the respiration of organisms that use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. High carbon dioxide levels make it difficult for fish to use dissolved oxygen, because fish must discharge carbon dioxide before taking in oxygen. As carbon dioxide increases, pH levels decrease (Explanation of Water Quality, 2004). 4. Conductivity. Conductivity, which is measured in micromhos (mho) per centimeter, is a "numerical expression of water's ability to conduct an electrical current" (Plona, 2002). Pure water is a poor conductor. Dissolved organic solids hinder conductivity, while inorganic solids like sodium and iron encourage it (Background on Chemical Parameters, 2004). Conductivity is a reliable indicator of water quality because it is relatively constant in a body of water (Explanation of Water Quality, 2004). 5. Dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the amount of oxygen in water. Weather, salinity, and temperature can affect dissolved oxygen. Cool water holds more dissolved oxygen (Background on Parameters, 2004). A thermal discharge, like that from the Oyster Creek reactor, can reduce DO. Fish are cold-blooded animals, using more oxygen at higher temperatures, when their metabolism increases and they need more DO (Explanation of Water Quality, 2004). 6. pH. pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid on a scale from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral, lower numbers more acidic, and higher numbers more basic. Each number is 10 times more acidic than the number above it (Explanation of Water Quality, 2004). For most organisms, a pH between 6.5 and 8.5 is acceptable, while pH levels of 7.0 to 8.0 are ideal (Background on Chemical Parameters, 2004). 7. Nitrate nitrogen. Nitrate-nitrogen, reported as ppm, is the most common form of nitrogen in water. It forms when bacteria nitrify (or transform) nitrite-nitrogen, and it harms aquatic life only at high levels (Mengel, 1998). Another source of nitrate-nitrogen is fertilizer runoff. It is a key nutrient for algae, and high levels can cause algae to grow too fast and harm fish populations, because algae use the dissolved oxygen that fish need. 8. Salinity. Salinity measures the percent of salt particles in the water in three groups: seawater (greater than 3 percent); brackish water, the water studied here (0.05 percent to 3 percent); and freshwater (less than 0.05 percent) (Background on Chemical Parameters, 2004). 9. Temperature. Water temperature is critical to water quality. It affects dissolved oxygen levels, plant photosynthesis, and the sensitivity of organisms to disease, toxic waste and parasites. Temperature determines which organisms can survive in an ecosystem; plants grow faster and oxygen levels decrease at higher temperatures (Background on Chemical Parameters, 2004). 10. Turbidity. Turbidity, reported as nephelometric turbidity units (NTU), measures the amount of sediment in water (water clarity) by how much the organic and inorganic particles in the water scatter light. The particle total is the "suspended load." The larger this load, the more light it scatters, and the higher the turbidity (Turbidity, 2001). High turbidity results in less sunlight, less plant growth, fewer food sources for the food chain, and higher temperatures because the suspended particles absorb heat (Background on Chemical Parameters, 2004). 11. Velocity. Water velocity measures how far water travels in a given time in meters per second (m/s) (Water Velocity Censors, 2005). Certain organisms prefer a particular velocity (Thomas, 1998). Organisms use less energy to breathe and find food in slower water, because in rapid water they must move continuously (Aquatext, 2004).    Anastasia conducting field research I obtained water-quality testing materials from two science supply houses, Wards Henrietta in NY and Carolina Biological in NC. I analyzed the creeks' microbial communities by inoculating EcoPlates™ with a pipette and reading the plates with a microplate reader for optical densities. I cultured the water samples on two types of agar in a BSL 1 laboratory using petri dishes. I used standard chemical testing procedures to test water-quality indicators except for conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH, salinity, temperature and turbidity, salinity, temperature and turbidity. I used a Horiba U22XD multi-parameter testing device to test those indicators. |
Results
Forked River Compared to Cedar Creek In Forked River, the intake creek, BOD, carbon dioxide, pH, velocity, and EcoPlate™ amines showed significant differences compared to Cedar Creek, the control creek. BOD in Forked River was an average 3.3 percent lower than in Cedar Creek, and carbon dioxide was an average 7.9 ppm lower. pH was 0.4 higher in Forked River and velocity was 0.4 m/s faster. Dissolved oxygen (DO) t-tests showed a borderline difference between Forked River and Cedar Creek, while there were no significant differences in ammonia-nitrogen, conductivity, salinity, temperature, turbidity, MacConkey's and nutrient agars, the overall EcoPlate™ readings, carboxylic acid, polymers, carbohydrates, amino acids, and phenolic compounds. I compared water samples from different sites along Forked River and Cedar Creek. Carbon dioxide and velocity showed significant differences throughout Forked River and Cedar Creek. Nutrient agar, which showed no difference creek to creek, shows significant differences at the heads and middles of the creeks, and a borderline difference at the mouths. BOD, nitrate-nitrogen, and turbidity all showed a significant difference only at the heads of the creeks. MacConkey's agar showed a borderline difference only at the heads. DO and amines showed differences only at the mouths, and EcoPlate™ phenolic compounds showed a borderline difference only at the mouths. Between Forked River and Cedar Creek, the heads of the creeks showed the most difference, with seven of the t-tests showing differences, 12 showing no differences, and one showing a borderline difference. The mouths of the creeks were next, with five showing differences, 14 showing no differences, and one showing a borderline difference. The middles of the creeks showed the least difference: three showed differences, and 17 do not. Oyster Creek Compared to Cedar Creek The pH in Oyster Creek was an average 0.4 higher than in Cedar Creek. The temperature was an average 6°C. higher. Turbidity was an average 6.3 NTU greater. Velocity was an average 0.5 m/s faster. The number of colonies cultured on the MacConkey's agar increased by an average of 48 bacteria between Oyster Creek and Cedar Creek, and the number of colonies on nutrient agar increased by 31 colonies. BOD and carbon dioxide showed only borderline differences. There were no significant differences in ammonia-nitrogen, conductivity, DO, nitrate-nitrogen, salinity, the overall EcoPlate™ readings, carboxylic 6 acid, carbohydrates, amino acid, phenolic compounds, and amines. I compared the results for individual sites along Oyster Creek and Cedar Creek. Temperature, velocity, and the number of human-pathogen-indicator bacteria colonies on MacConkey's agar were significantly greater in Oyster Creek than in Cedar Creek. The number of bacteria colonies on nutrient agar was significantly different in the heads and mouths of Oyster Creek. There was a borderline difference in the middle of the creek, and the total number of bacteria was significantly different throughout the discharge creek. EcoPlate™ carboxylic acids, amino acids and phenolic compounds showed significant differences at the heads of the creeks, and DO and carbon dioxide showed significant differences only at the mouths of the creeks. The t-test results for the heads of Oyster and Cedar Creeks showed the most difference, with nine showing significant differences and 11 showing none. The mouths of the creeks were next, with seven showing differences and 12 showing no differences. The middles of the creeks showed the fewest differences, with four showing differences, 13 no differences, and three borderline differences. Oyster Creek Compared to Forked River There were no significant differences in carbon dioxide, conductivity, salinity, temperature, turbidity, velocity, MacConkey's and nutrient agars, and EcoPlate™ amines. Carbon dioxide had an average difference of .9 ppm. Forked River had an average 1.2 greater conductivity and 0.09 greater salinity. Oyster Creek had an average of 5°C. higher temperature, an average 4 NTU higher turbidity, and an average 0.15 m/s faster velocity. Human-pathogen-indicator bacteria colonies averaged 43 higher, and the total number of bacteria averaged 28 higher in Oyster Creek. Carbohydrates showed a borderline difference. There was no significant difference in ammonia-nitrogen, BOD, DO, nitrate-nitrogen, pH, the overall EcoPlate™ readings, carboxylic acid, polymers, amino acid, and phenolic compounds. I then compared my data for individual sites along Forked River and Oyster Creek. Salinity, temperature, MacConkey's, and the nutrient agar showed differences in all three sites. Velocity, pH, the overall EcoPlate™ readings, and carboxylic and amino acids showed significant differences only at the heads. Turbidity showed a borderline difference at the heads. Carbon dioxide and DO showed a significant difference at the mouths. The heads of the creek showed the most difference, with 11 t-tests showing significant differences, eight showing no significant differences, and one showing a borderline difference. Next were the mouths of the creeks, with seven significant differences, 12 showing no differences, and one borderline difference. The middles of the creeks showed the fewest differences, with six significant differences, 12 showing no differences, and one borderline difference.  Water Quality Parameter Results (Click to view) |
