Health & Safety

Adequate ventilation and housekeeping are necessary for staff safety in any fossil prep lab. Preparation activities, such as the use of pneumatic percussion and grinding tools, can generate huge amounts of airborne dust.

In the short-term, this can cause irritation to skin, eyes, lungs and airways, but longer-term exposure may pose serious health risks, particularly if specimens contain certain forms of silica or radioactive elements that can cause silicosis or cancer. Samples of matrix can be analyzed by an industrial hygienist to understand what dangers may be present.

Airborne hazards can be mitigated by using appropriate dust masks, respirators or an efficient mechanical dust evacuation system.  Disposable dust masks (N95 respirators) are only appropriate for preventing the inhalation of nuisance dust. To protect yourself from more than nuisance dust, a half mask respirator must be used. If a respirator is required a medical clearance must be provided by a physician and an annual fit test must be completed by a competent professional. Preparators should also note that smoking compounds the hazards of dust inhalation.

Acetone and ethanol are probably the most common solvents used in preparation labs, but more noxious solvents like toluene, xylene and MEK are sometimes necessary or found in other substances. Other commonly used materials such as urethanes, rubbers, epoxies and resins used for casting, and waxes like cyclododecane may also give off irritating or harmful fumes. 

General lab safety procedures in labeling, storing and disposing of chemicals and solvents should be practiced in fossil preparation labs to ensure staff safety and, in fact, is an obligation of all employers. The rules and regulations governing this fall under the jurisdiction of the Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Most fossil prep labs will be covered under OSHA’s standard for a laboratory where “relatively small quantities of hazardous chemicals are used on a non-production basis”. See Regulation 29 CFR 1910.1450

The basic requirements are that labs must:

1. keep labels on containers they receive,
2. maintain MSDS’s for each hazardous chemical, and
3. inform and train employees in accordance with paragraph (h) of this section.
4. maintain a written Chemical Hygiene Plan which sets forth procedures, equipment, personal protective equipment and work practices that are capable of protecting employees from the health hazards presented by hazardous chemicals used in that particular workplace.

• Familiarize yourself with the location and operation of lab safety equipment including: First-aid kit, fire extinguisher, defibrillator, and eyewash station.
• Download and read the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for any chemical or compound that you work with. Keep the sheets in a folder or other place where they are easy to find in the event of an emergency.
• In case of chemical spill, use a spill-kit, consult the MSDS, and call for help. Do not leave spills unattended; wait outside the lab if there are fumes.
• Chemicals must be properly labeled when decanted into smaller containers. Containers can be wax cups, Nalgene bottles, dropper bottles, etc. A piece of tape and a marker can be used to label the container with the chemical (e.g.  Acryloid B-72 in Acetone, Butvar B-98 in Ethanol, Acetic Acid 15%), your initials, and the date.
• Under no circumstances should food containers be used to store or transfer lab chemicals.
• Chemicals must be disposed of properly, do not pour chemicals down the drain.
• If you aren’t sure how and when to use a chemical, or whether it is right for the job, wait and ask.

Preparators should receive training on common “shop” safety as equipment like table saws, angle grinders, bench grinders, circular saws, band saws, sanders, cut-off saws, etc. can cause severe injury.  Common sense and proper training are essential.  For example, long hair, dangling ID badges, jewelry or loose clothing should be avoided when using saws. 

A preparator’s tools can also cause less obvious damage. Noise is particularly insidious since there are often no obvious signs that damage is occurring other than tinnitus (ringing in the ear) and difficulty hearing for a period of time. Just as there are Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for chemicals, so too are there TLVs for noise.  Even cheap and simple foam earplugs can provide effective protection. Packages should list the product’s noise reduction ratings (NRR) that correspond to the reduction in decibels (dB).  City traffic, milling machines and lawn mowers all have noise levels between 80-95 dB meaning that they are seen as very annoying and may cause hearing damage after 8 hours. Tools like the airscribe may provide similar noise levels. Don’t forget that background ambient noise will contribute to overall levels. 

For more information on noise read Coueignoux-London, C., 2006. All Ears: The Importance of Noise Protection. AIC News, March 2006 (31:2) 17–18.

Tools such as airscribes and drills are used almost on a daily basis and preparators must ensure that they do not become susceptible to repetitive stress injuries caused by vibration and bad posture. 
Check out the following resources for additional information:

• The United Kingdom’s Health & Safety Executive website has useful information on vibration and other topics. 
• For more information visit the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) website.
• To combat the effects of vibration and repetitive stress consult the University of Michigan Health System Sports Medicine Advisor index. Information on diagnosis, treatment and exercises to prevent or rehabilitate injuries are available online.

• Always clean and return tools to their drawer or cabinet when finished with them.
• Tools may not be removed from the building.
• Power tools may not be operated without another person present, and only by qualified members of the staff. If you don’t know whether you are qualified, then you aren’t.
• Always wear eye protection or a face shield and ear protection when using power tools.
• Sharpen carbide tipped tools on a Dremel or Foredom grinder with a diamond cutoff wheel for that purpose.
• Keep air hoses and extension cords organized so they don’t become a tripping hazard.
• If you aren’t sure how and when to use a tool or whether it is right for the job, wait and ask.

• Use caution when lifting or moving heavy objects. When necessary ask for help and share the load.  Use a hoist or forklift for heavy blocks.
• Use a step-stool or step-ladder when getting boxes or specimens down from high shelving. Stretching to reach something can result in injury or damage to yourself or a specimen.
• Maintain proper posture while working at a microscope, table or workbench, take breaks and stretch during repetitive motion activities.

There are a number of radioactive elements that occur in nature. In some cases, these can be deposited in fossil and subfossil specimens, causing the specimens to become radioactive. Naturally-occurring radioactive materials are generally not subject to regulation and these specimens do not emit enough radiation to have harmful effects on the timescales that are usually involved in the workplace. Nonetheless, it is important to be aware of the potential for radioactivity in fossils and take steps to avoid unnecessary exposure. Specimens of unknown origin should have their mineral components identified by scientific analytical methods; radioactive samples can also be identified using Geiger counter. 

The following precautions should always be used when dealing with radioactive specimens:

• Limit the specimen size to reduce the amount of radiation emitted.
• Store the specimen in a sealed, transparent, and labeled container so it may be identified without extra handling.
• Store in a ventilated mineral storage cabinet; if high levels of radioactivity are present, use lead containers to provide an additional barrier
• Do not smoke, eat, or sleep near the specimens.
• Limit exposure to dust from radioactive specimens, especially during preparation.
• Do not store specimens in areas of heavy traffic where people spend a lot of time working. 
• Staff spending significant amounts of time working with radioactive specimens are recommended to wear radiation badges which record the amount of radioactive exposure.  The badges are sent in to the supplying company once a month to interpret data and determine the safety of working with the museum’s collection. 

Radon is a naturally-occurring radioactive gas that is emitted by specimens that contain uranium salts. It is colorless and odorless. In poorly-ventilated and confined spaces, radon can build up to levels that, with long-term exposure, can lead to serious health issues. These conditions rarely occur in the workplace and there are no legal limits for workplace exposure. Nonetheless, there are a number of simple steps that should be taken to reduce the potential risk.

• Bag specimens
• Outfitting storage areas with radon detection equipment.
• Labeling storage areas with hazardous materials signage.
• Keeping storage area well-ventilated to prevent the build-up of radon gas.
• Wearing a respirator and/or using an effective vent system if working for a prolonged time with minerals that may emit radon.

Radon meters and wipe tests can be used to detect and measure radon in storage areas and work surfaces. There are two types of radon monitors

• Single use “passive” monitors – these costs about $30 (including the mail-in test)
• Electronic programmable monitor – these monitors cost about $120 and provide real-time and long-term testing with alarms. They can be placed anywhere and are recommend for any lab and/or storage area.

Preparators should be cautious when working with molding and casting compounds. It is possible to develop sensitivities to polyester and epoxy resins that can, in the most serious cases, lead to an inability to handle these materials. Two-part epoxy resin systems contain epoxy resin, catalysts/curing agents, diluents and other additives any of which may cause irritant and/or allergic contact reactions. Cured epoxy resin (the fully hardened combination of the epoxy resin system chemicals) should be non-irritating and non-sensitizing. 

For more information visit the Allergy to Epoxy Resin DermNet NZ webpage.

Ironically, the increased use of latex rubbers in personal protective equipment gloves is also a cause of allergies for some individuals. Allergies to latex can cause welts, swelling, rashes and asthma. Other materials such as nitrile gloves can be used to replace latex products in the lab. Resources are available online for dealing with this challenge. 

• Mayo Clinic
• American Latex Allergy Association
• DermNet NZ

An informal survey of fossil preparators by Scott Madsen indicated that the most common injuries are: repetitive stress from lab work with hand tools, or other strain injuries in the field and lab (backs, shoulders, etc). Prevention requires varied routines and frequent breaks from work.   

Download the Burke Museum Lab Manual for other practical information and tips on health and safety. 

• While steel toe boots may not be required, open-toed shoes are not recommended in the lab.
• Long hair must be tied back, and jewelry and loose clothing must be contained while using rotary tools.
• Long pants are preferred for protection in the lab.
• Contact lenses are not recommended.  In the case of solvent, debris, or adhesive in the eye, contacts can make first-aid much more complicated. Safety goggles should be worn if contacts are necessary.
• Dust masks, safety glasses, and hearing protection should be worn when necessary.

Prospecting for fossils typically involves strenuous hiking for many miles over difficult terrain, usually during high temperatures and far from medical facilities. To help ensure safety:

• Dress appropriately — Always wear sturdy hiking boots, long pants, sun-screen and a wide brimmed hat.
• Be prepared for heat — Always carry adequate drinking water, take breaks in shade when you can.
• Practice tool safety — When walking on hillsides, carry sharp tools (shovel, pickax, rock hammer) in your down slope hand to ensure that they do not cause injury if you should fall.
• Be aware of your surroundings — Most fossils are found near eroding cliffs, always use care when working near the edge, and be aware of the likelihood of falling debris.
• Respect nature — Animal encounters are common, be aware of venomous reptiles, insects, and large predators that reside in your field area. Do not turn over rocks with your hands, or put your hands into holes.
• Watch the weather — Dry conditions can lead to wildfire, and summer storms can bring hail, lightening and torrential rain, resulting in problems like flash floods and hypothermia for the unprepared.

Safety during collecting trips will depend greatly on the type of terrain where you are working. Most of the risks can adequately be dealt with by being aware of your terrain, having the appropriate knowledge and gear and using common sense. Dangers may include:

Cliffs 

• Falling rocks — Cliffs with vertical rock faces can collapse without warning leading to falling rocks of varying size.  When possible keep clear of the foot of the rock face and, consider wearing a hard hat.
• Steep drops — Keep a safe distance from cliff edges.

Beaches

• Mud — Dry and cracked mud on the surface may cover large and/or deep pools of mud underneath in which a person could become stuck.  Test surrounding surfaces before proceeding and, if possible, collect in teams.
• Rocky terrain — Reduce risk of injury by wearing appropriate footwear and moving slowly and deliberately on slippery and loose rocky terrain.
• Rising tide — be aware of tidal patterns to ensure that there is no risk of drowning or hypothermia by being caught unawares by terrain changes caused by tides.  Be aware of deep water and strong currents.
• Weather conditions— be aware of expected weather conditions.

Quarries

• Falling rocks — Be aware of the potential for partial or large-scale rock collapse from rock faces and from machinery. Wear protective hard hats and bright clothing for visibility. 
• Machinery — Keep clear of large vehicles.  Wear appropriate headgear and clothing to increase visibility so that you are easily seen my machine operators.
• Deep water — Quarries may develop pools that can be deep with steep sides. Rocks and other hazards may not be visible under the surface. 
• Do not collect in mine shafts

For additional safety tips during prospecting (particularly for U.K. localities) visit the Discovering Fossils website.

Excavating fossils is sometimes a one-person task, other times it requires a large crew, all working in close proximity in a quarry.

• Be aware of others working around you, what tools they are using, and what they are doing with them.
• Ensure that you know how to safely use all hand tools such as hammers, chisels, etc. Have the proper personal protective equipment such as safety goggles on hand. 
• Solvents used in adhesives and coatings will not react well in high heat. Care must be taken when transporting and storing solvents in extreme outdoor conditions. 
• Large field jackets often need to be carried long distances by hand, construct them to be as light as possible while still protecting the specimen, and build in handles or straps. Carry them with as many people necessary; lift carefully to protect your back.
• Use extreme care when working around vehicles and power tools. Secure and stow all loads in vehicles, use seatbelts.

For more on Excavation see this site’s Collecting pages.

Getting to collecting localities often requires driving on poor quality roads, or cross-country. Off-road driving is an acquired skill, go slowly and use a spotter on difficult terrain. Minimize impact to the environment whenever possible.